Traditional alcoholic beverages of the Bonda tribe in Odisha, India: evidence from the field

Traditional alcoholic-beverages have been used by the tribes since ages. Bonda is one of the 62 Schedule Tribes and 13 Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups of Odisha, who reside in the southern part of the state. Historically, a number of traditional alcohols have been produced by the Bonda which is consumed widely and used in the socio-economic and cultural events. Current times evidence the production and use of traditional alcohols gradually giving way to modern alcoholic drinks. In this context this paper tries to document different types of traditional alcohols produced, consumed and used by the Bonda along with its various impacts on the individual drinker and the society. The data were collected through community-based research in four villages under Khairaput block of Malkangiri, Odisha. The study found that 23 types of traditional alcohols are produced by the Bonda households, who derive economic security there from. However, the production, consumption and use of traditional alcohols are on the decline with the gradual increase of foreign liquor and this paper suggests institutional support for the clean production and marketing of traditional alcohols of the Bonda tribe.


Introduction
Traditional alcohol as a beverage has been used by people around the world since the beginning of recorded history [1][2][3].In contemporary times, the demand for alcohol is also constantly evolving with the increase in demand for foreign liquor, the ubiquity of alcohol consumption, and the use of alcohol in socio-cultural events and ceremonies.However, traditional alcohol has its own significance among the ethnic groups residing in any corner of the world [3,4].Like other countries, the production, consumption, and use of traditional alcohol have their own social, economic, and cultural relevance among the Scheduled Tribe (ST: the most primitive and aboriginal people in society and basically live in the interior parts of dense forests or hilly areas) communities of India [5].Furthermore, traditional alcohol plays a significant role in human diet and nutrition and has a sensory value among a greater number of ST communities in India [6,7].A study by Campbell-Platt [8] found that fermented food and beverages constitute around 20-40 per cent of the food supply because of its high nutrition and calorie content.In the cultural context, traditional alcohol holds significant value among ST communities.For STs, serving fermented alcohol to guests is considered rich hospitality and customary law since ages [9][10][11].People also serve traditional alcohol in festivals, social-cultural functions, and rituals to their friends, relatives, and fellow community members.In tribal communities, the status of a family is measured on the basis of the quality of alcohol served by that family on different socio-cultural occasions, which indicates the importance of traditional alcohol in the ST communities [12].
India is home to 735 ST communities, out of which 75 are Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs), having the distinct characteristics of (1) a pre-agricultural level of technology, (2) a very low level of literacy, and (3) a declining or stagnant population [13].Odisha, as a state of India, is home to the highest 62 ST communities and 13 PVTG (Birhor, Bonda, Chuktia Bhunjia, Didayi, Juang, Kharia, Dongria Khond, Kutia Khond, Lanjia Saora, Lodha, Mankirdia, Paudi Bhuyan, and Saora) [13].The ST and PVTGs populations of Odisha are 9,590,756 and 3,305,810, respectively [14].Bonda is one of the 13 PVTGs of Odisha that exclusively resides in the Malkangiri district of Odisha, India.According to the Census (2011), the total population of Bonda tribes is 12,231, which comprises 5669 males and 6562 females [14].The literacy rate of Bonda is 36.61 per cent, which is much less than the literacy of other major PVTGs in Odisha [14].

About the Bonda (historical, cultural, and geographical characteristics) History of Bonda tribe
Numerous historical documents describe the origin and affiliation of Bonda as a separate tribal community differently, which makes it difficult to rely on a particular document about the derivation of Bonda.A number of anthropologists and historians have mentioned in their book that Bonda as a separate tribal community has originated from the Gadaba tribe, a tribe that was born in the river bank of the "Godavari" (the second longest river in India) near the Bastar region of Chhattisgarh, India, and named as per the name of the river [15].During the tenth century, the Gadaba community was divided into three sub-groups, namely Gadaba, Bonda, and Didayi, for various reasons.Like the name Gadaba, which was derived from the Godavari River, the name of the Bonda tribe was also inherited from the name of 'Bondi Mahadei' , who was the queen of the then king "Jagadek" of Bastar, Chhattisgarh, India [16].

Geographical character of Bonda tribes
The names Bonda (also known as Bondo, Bondas, Bonda Paraja, and Bhonda) signify 'naked people' having the characteristics of being the most rude, wild, aggressive, savage, and cruel among all PVTGs in Odisha [17].They belong to the Austro-Asiatic racial stock and speak Remo-an Austro-Asiatic dialect [18].The Bonda are exclusively found in Malkangiri district of Odisha, India, and are mostly concentrated in Khairaput block of the district, which is about 70 km away from the district headquarter and 580 km away from the state capital (Bhubaneswar).The Bonda community is basically divided into two groups, namely, Upper Bonda (lives on the top of Bonda hill) and Lower Bonda (lives in the flat area of foot hill), which is based on their geographical area of residence [18].Stretching over an area of more than 150 square km, the geographical area of Bonda, namely "Bonda Hill" lies between 18.15 and 18°.30north latitude and 82°.15-82°.30longitude.Around 32 small and medium villages are found on Bonda Hill, and the majority of households residing in the village are Bonda.In a total of 1819 families (mostly nuclear families), a total of 7098 people live in the 32 villages, with 3424 males 3674 females [14] (Fig. 1).
Traditionally, Bonda were living in a hut, collecting water from streams, gathering food from forests, and wearing dresses prepared by themselves, using the raw materials collected from nature.Over time, vast socioeconomic and cultural changes have been taking place in the Bonda community.Living in complete isolation is no more prevalent, and complete dependency on nature for daily living is hardly practiced by any Bonda household.With the support of government of Odisha, the Bonda Development Agency (BDA) was established in 1977 in Malkangiri district, Odisha, to gear up the overall social, economic, cultural, and political development of the Bonda tribe.As a result, a sizable number of huts have been converted into concrete houses and attached with facilities and amenities like electricity, latrine, cooking gas, drinking water, etc. [19].The traditional staple food of Bonda, i.e., millet products, is substituted by a number of cereals like rice, wheat, maize, etc.The trend of girls wearing dresses to cover only the upper part of their bodies has been swapped for full sleeved dresses, and all traditional ornaments are replaced by metallic jewellery.The nature-dependent daily life of Bonda has become market driven and dominated by a number of modern socio-economic and cultural practices [19].

Culture of Bonda tribe
Like other tribal communities, the Bonda people believe in a strong and unique socio-cultural system.They view a village as a sacred entity safeguarded by a magical power.The entire village is considered an exogamous unit, and all women staying in the village are treated as mothers or sisters.Most Bonda believe in a monogamous family system, and a Bonda man gets a bride through a very lengthy, expensive, and ritualistic process.In a typical Bonda marriage system, it is commonly observed that a significant number of brides are older than the grooms.In certain cases, it has been observed that the bride's age is nearly twice that of the groom [20].From an economic view, traditionally, Bonda believed in a closed and subsistence economy based on hunting and food gathering.
Besides hunting and gathering, other livelihood activities like agriculture, fishing, weaving, archery, broomstick making, handloom and handicrafts, etc. are also practiced by the Bonda [20,21].
Religiously, the Bonda were animists, and currently they are largely influenced by Hinduism.For Bonda, Patkhanda Mahaprabhu is an important deity, symbolically identified as "sun and moon" and represented by a sword kept in a Banyan tree [20].The other deities worshiped by Bonda are village deities like Bursung, Kepurchuan, Singraj, and Dhartani, and forest deities like Uga and Renungbar.They also believe in evil spirits like Gunam, Kamini, Raskoda Devta, etc., who cause suffering and pain in the family and village [20].The main religious functionaries in the Bonda communities are the priest (Pujari or Sisa), medicine man (Dishari), and shaman (Gurumai) [22].Cultural festivals like Chait Parab, Khunsargige, Makagige, Rukdaburgige, Kurekgige, Sagmogige, Kumbakdagige, Gebursing-gige, Sumegelirak, and Susugige are celebrated in different months of the year, signifying different values and purposes set by the ancestors of the community.Consumption of traditional alcohol is a major point of attraction and the highest cultural practice in any religious festival and socio-cultural celebration of Bonda [23].Given the relevance of traditional alcohol and the demand for its consumption, a greater number of Bonda households have been producing alcohol for ages by following their traditional method of production [23].
Since ages, the Bonda tribe has possessed a great knowledge of making alcohol by using different edible ingredients like cereals, vegetables, fruits, nuts, berries, flowers, etc., available in their locality.Over 23 different types of alcohol have been produced by the community by following broadly three different methods of production, which are classified under six major categories as per the major ingredients added to the alcohol [12].
The tribal society in general and the Bonda in particular are on the verge of transition and rapid transformation.Like other socio-cultural changes, the production, consumption, and use of traditional alcohol as a beverage are changing very fast due to changes in socio-cultural practice and a shift in the preference of the Bonda from traditional alcohol to foreign liquor.Therefore, the basic aim of this paper is to describe and document the rich art Fig. 1 Geographical area of habitation of Bonda tribe in Malkangiri, Odisha, India.Source https:// www.mapso findia.com/ maps/ orissa/ oriss aloca tion.htm of production, consumption, and use of traditional alcohol in Bonda as a pressing interest for the preservation and spread of tribal culture before it entirely disappears.As a consequence, this paper tries to document different types of traditional alcohol and the methods of production followed by the Bonda tribes.Additionally, the study also tries to capture the consumption pattern, differential use, socio-cultural and economic relevance, and health implications of traditional alcohol in the life of Bonda.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows: section "Methods" describes the data and methodology used in the study, followed by analysis and results in the section "Results".Section "Discussion" covers the discussion, and section "Conclusion" concludes the research work with suggestions.

Methods
The present study is part of a large community-based research initiative on the Bonda tribe of Malkangiri district, Odisha, India.Malkangiri is one of the 30 districts of Odisha, India, situated in the extreme southern part of the state.The district covers an area of 5791 square kilometres and lies between 18.343586 latitude and 81.882530 longitude.Malkangiri is a district dominated by the ST population.Out of the total 613,192 people in the district, 354,614 (57 per cent) are STs.Along with 23 different ST communities (Gadaba, Koya, Kondadora, Paroja, Kandha, Kotia, Bhuyan, Banjara, Parenga, Bhumia, Matya, Saora, Holva, Dharua, Kora, Dal, Bhottoda, Gandia, Shabar, Bhunjia, Kandha Gauda Bonda, and Didayi), there are two PVTGs, namely Bonda and Didayi, that reside in the district.Bonda is one of the important PVTGs of the district, which lives in the Khairaput, Korkunda, Kudumulgumma, and Malkangiri blocks of the district, with a population of 12,231 [14].However, as a block in the district, the concentration of Bonda in Khairaput is highest.The Bonda PVTG of Malkangiri possesses a great knowledge of making alcohol using different edible ingredients available in the locality.The alcohol production methods followed by Bonda are broadly classified into three types.About 23 different types of traditional alcohol is produced by the Bonda, which can be classified into six different categories.
This study was conducted in June 2022 in the Khairaput block of Malkangiri district.A total of four villages, namely Nuaguda, Bandhaguda from the plane area (Tala Bonda), and Khuriguda, and Bandhaguda from the hilly area (Bonda/Upara Bonda) under three Gram-panchayat, namely Rasabeda, Kadamguda and Mudulipada, were selected purposively, as these villages had the highest concentration of Bonda households.In these four villages, a total of 64 Bonda households were engaged in the production and sale of traditional alcohol.In the sampling, all 64 families were covered under the data collection process.Data related to production (input, method, process, seasonality, etc.) and sale (volume, price, etc.) of traditional alcohol with income received and use of traditional alcohol in socio-cultural events were collected through a semi-structured interview schedule through in-depth interviews.Additionally, seven alcohol samples were collected from the community by following the proper scientific method.The collected samples were analysed in the pharmaceutical laboratory of Utkal University, Odisha, to identify the ingredients added to them and their potential health impacts on the consumer.The quantitative data collected from the household survey was analysed using descriptive statistics and figures.Similarly, the qualitative data were analysed using content analysis and narrative analysis to substantiate the objective.
Before entering the community for data collection, necessary permissions were obtained from the authorities of Utkal University of Odisha, the Director of Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe Research and Training Institute (SCSTRTI)-Odisha, the Collector and District Magistrate of Malkangiri, and the Project Officer of Bonda Development Authority.All village heads were informed earlier about data collection, and on the date of data collection, a meeting was held in each village for discussion, seeking the necessary information and cooperation of the villagers.

Results
Broadly traditional alcohol of Bonda can be classified into six different categories based on the major ingredients available in the beverage.The six different categories of traditional alcohol are: (1) alcohol prepared from fruits and vegetables; (2) alcohol directly collected from trees; (3) alcohol prepared from fermented food/cereals; (4) alcohol prepared from flowers; (5) alcohol prepared from seeds/nuts/berries; and (6) alcohol prepared from ingredients like sugar, jaggery, etc.Each category of traditional alcohol is further subdivided into different types on the basis of the major specific ingredient added to it and/or the process of production followed to make the alcohol (Fig. 2).

Types, ingredients and production season of different traditional alcohol
Out of the six different categories of traditional alcohol prepared by the Bonda tribe, Mahuli is a commonly used alcohol produced from the Mahua flower.Mahuli, as an alcohol, is produced by Bonda throughout the year.Although the Mahua flower is harvested only in the winter season, the Bonda dry and store the flower to produce alcohol for the whole year.The addictive or minor ingredients added to Mahua liquor are Sugar, Jaggery, Urea, Bark of the Mahua tree, and Herbal roots (Mahul roots) collected from forests, etc.The addictive ingredients added to the alcohols are based on household choices for domestic use.However, in commercial use, the alcohol is produced by adding a higher quantity of urea (nitrogen fertilizer) and other intoxicants with the aim of increasing the intoxicating potency for the consumer for a longer time period (Table 1).
The second category of traditional alcohol of Bonda are the sap, juice, or liquid collected from trees like fishtail palm (Salap), date palm (Khajuri), palm tree (Tala/Tadi), etc.The sap, juice, or liquid, directly collected from different trees, is consumed afresh and mixed with different herbal roots and baking soda at the time of collection.The remaining sap and juice after fresh consumption are processed for fermentation to enhance the alcohol content to be consumed later.Alcohol prepared from fruits and vegetables is the third category of traditional alcohol prepared by the Bonda.These alcohols are prepared from different locally available fruits and vegetables, like cashew apple, jackfruit, mango, banana, pineapple, tomato, etc.Similarly, there are certain alcohols prepared from seeds, berries, or nuts like blackberry, ceylon oak fruit, tamarind, gular fruit, amla, etc.The alcohols prepared from fruits, vegetables, seeds, nuts, berries, etc. generally follow a uniform process of production, i.e., fermentation and distillation.The other category of traditional alcohol of the Bonda is made out of food or cereals like cooked rice, millet, flattened rice, and so on.The alcohols prepared from food, or cereals are used for consumption in two stages, i.e., consumed after fermentation and subsequent distillation.While processing for fermentation of Pendom, or Fendum, the food, or cereals are mixed with minor products, or addictive like urea, sunned rice flour, herbal roots (Bakhar or Pendom Osho: roots of Chitarmul, bark of Chitkudi, roots of Suan grass), etc.However, for the preparation of Mandia Landa (Finger Millet Beer), minor ingredients like Mandia Pitha/Pitha Osho (a combination of leaves of the Gandri plant, finger millet flour, urea, bark of the Chitkudai plant, tubers of the Gulti plant, and roots of the Chitarmul plant) are added with the finger millet flour as the major ingredient.After fermentation, the food, or cereals are called Pendum/Fendum, Landa and Pana.
Drinking the extract from fermented food is an ageold practice of tribes in general and the Bonda in particular, which is believed to be healthy for the human body and mind.The residual parts of fermented food/ cereal are further fermented by adding addictive.After 3-4 days the extracts are processed for distillation to produce alcohol.Besides the above five categories of alcohol, the Bonda also make alcohol from sugar and  jaggery, and from the mixing of all the above substances through fermentation and distillation, which is called mixed alcohol (Table 1).Broadly, the production methods of traditional alcohol of the Bonda can be classified under three categories, i.e., collection of fresh sap, juice, or liquid from the trees and consumed by adding different ingredients, or addictive, fermentation of different substances like cooked rice, flattened rice, etc., before consumption and fermentation and distillation of substances like sap, or juice from trees, fruits, vegetables, seeds, nuts, berries, food, cereals, sugar, jaggery, etc. (Fig. 3).

Classification of Alcohol
There are certain alcohols like Salap (fishtail palm sap/juice), Khajuri (date palm sap/juice), Tal (palm sap/ juice), etc. which are directly collected from the respective trees and used as beverages by adding baking soda and different herbal roots like Badni kanda (tuber of flower broom), Rauni chali (bark of Rauni tree), Tendka chali (bark of Tendka tree), Suan cher (root of little millet), Tangini chali (bark of Tangini tree), etc.However, the alcohols like Pendom, Landa, Pana, etc. are prepared through the fermentation process by keeping them in a mud, aluminium, or plastic container for more than three days.On the other hand, alcohols like Mahuli, Salap Mad, Chauli Mad, Chuda Mad, Chini Mad, Guda Mad and alcohols produced from any specific fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds, or berries are prepared through fermentation and distillation process (Fig. 4).The step-by-step production of Salap (Saga palm juice) and Mahul Mada (Mahua liquor) are presented with photo in Figs. 5 and 6.
From the fishtail palm (Salap) and palm tree (Tala/ Tadi) the panicles/stigma/fruit tubes are cut just before the flowering stage and connected with a mud/aluminium container hanging from the branches of the tree by a rope.The panicles/stigma/fruit tubes of the tree are cut two to three times a day for sap/juice secretion, which accumulates in the hanging container.This activity continues until the tube no longer secretes the sap/juice.However, in case of date palms, the sap/Juice (Khajuri) is collected by making a hole in the growing part of the trunk of the tree.Similar to the process of sap/juice collection from fishtail palm and palm tree, a container is hung in the growing point of the date palm, and sap/juice collection continue until secretion stops (Figs. 7, 8).
Since ancient times, traditional alcohol has had significant socio-cultural relevance in Scheduled Tribe communities, and the Bonda tribe is not an exception.Traditionally, the Bonda believe in alcohol as a substance that can be used to satisfy the God/Goddess, the

Alcohol Production Methods
Fresh Sap/Juice directly collected from tree (Salap Katiba) Fig. 4 Process of production of traditional alcohol.The process of production of traditional alcoholic beverages of Bonda tribe is broadly classified under four major categories.They follow steps differently to produce broadly two types of alcoholic beverages namely; production of alcohol through fermentation and through distillation.The major ingredients added into the alcohol involve different processes and steps of alcohol production, which is followed in a systematic procedure.Source Data compiled by the author based on field study and observation invisible spirit, the unsatisfied soul, and the soul of the forefathers.Out of the different types of alcohol prepared by the Bonda, there are certain specific types that are in greater demand during cultural events and festivals as offerings for the invisible souls with the belief that life exist after death.Mahuli (Mahua liquor) is the alcohol that enjoys the highest demand during major cultural events and festivals of the Bonda like Osha Parab, Push Parab, Chait Parab, etc.Following Mahuli, rice beer (Pandom and Landa) is the second most demanded alcohol, followed by sugar (Chini) and jaggery (Gud) alcohol during socio-cultural celebrations and festivals.Besides that, the alcohol is also considered as a centre point of attraction in different ceremonials, such as naming ceremonies, marriages, puberty, in which the village priest offers the alcohol, like Salap and Mahuli, to the local deity as an ancestral practice.Among the ST in general and Bonda in particular, there is a common belief in the existence of the soul after death, which they usually try to satisfy by offering life sacrifice along with traditional alcohol like Mahuli, Salap, and Chini/Guda Mad (Table 2).
Note During the naming ceremony, puberty, and marriage, alcohols like Salap, and Mahuli are offered to the local deity by the village priest (Disari) along with a sacrifice (mostly cock).In cases of death-related ceremonies, the same is offered to satisfy the soul.However, on all occasions the household offers traditional alcohol to other households in the community, along with relatives and friends.
Alcohol as a source of livelihood and a way of life was adopted by 64 households in the four sample villages under survey in Khairaput block of Malkangiri district, Odisha.By selling different types of alcohol, a family could able to earn about Rs. 300/-to Rs. 450.0/-in a day.The cost of alcohol varies from product to product.However, the production of Mahuli, Pendom, Landa, etc. incurs relatively higher cost, which is around 30-50 per cent of the daily earning.However, the alcohols like Salap,Tadi, Khajuri, etc. incurs relatively less cost of 10-20 per cent of the daily income from alcohol selling of a household.All alcohol producing households produce Mahuli, rice beer, Chini Mad, Gud Mad, etc., round the year.However, depending on the availability of different

Picture-1
Picture-2 P icture-3 Picture-4 Picture-5 Picture-6 P icture-7 Picture-8 Fig. 5 Step-by-step production of 'Salap' (Saga palm juice).Picture 1: Saga palm tree with new off-shoot, which they call it as "Salap Ker".This 'Ker' is cut by the 'Jigidia' (the person who cut Ker and does the job of giving down Salap from the tree).Picture 2: After cutting off the 'Ker' the appearance of the tree looks as presented in the photo.It is tied with Siali rope to make it well warm massage by putting pressure with legs.Picture 3: After giving a proper massage, the Ker is hanged with a big clay pot or steel pot known as 'Salap Odu' where the saga juice is collected for serving the people to drink.Picture 4: The Jigidia is giving down Salap with the help of rope which hangs down from tree top to ground to take 'Tuma' (by which the saga juice will come down to the people to drink).Fig. 6 Step-by-step Production of 'Mahul Mada' (Mahua liquor).Picture 1 and 2: Fresh new mahua flowers Mahula collected from jungle are dried on sun light.This will preserve the mahua juice inside it for liquor formation in future.Picture 3 and 4: The dried mahua flowers are put in a big 'Aluminium Handi' with natural addictive and water poured into it.It is covered with the lid and left undisturbed for few days to ferment.After fermentation it will look deep brownish and sour taste known as mahua buffer solution, so it is confirmed to ready for making liquor.Picture 5 and 6: The prepared mahua buffer solution is taken to a nearby water body to make liquor.A hearth is made with big stones and wet soil where the 'Aluminium Handi' is kept under fire and part of the solution is poured into it for preparation.Picture 7 and 8 This the last part of Mahul Mada preparation where one big 'Aluminium Handi' is kept under fire on the hearth and is covered from top by another medium sized 'Aluminium Handi' known as 'Kopri or Kupri' with a hole in it.To the hole a bamboo pipe (Mad Nala) is connected to connect another Handi (Mada Handi), which is put in water where the liquor comes through the liquor pipe and collected in it.This 'Handi' is tide in a biforked wooden trunk to keep it under water with the help of few bigger stones on both side of the container so that the collected liquor will not evaporate after collection availability of Salap, Tadi, Khajuri, etc. is limited still its collection takes place throughout the year.Further, alcohols like Mandia Landa, Pendom/Fendum, etc. are highly demanded in the weekly Haat (market).So, on the weekly market days, the producers prepare a greater amount of the alcohols to meet market demand and make a good profit.It was also observed that the economic condition of alcohol producing households was better than that of other households in the sample villages.(Table 3).

Alcohol distillation process S alap juice Collection Fermentation of Mahua flower
The consumption of traditional alcohol by the Bonda tribe has shown a declining trend over the years.This could be due to an increase in adult literacy and education, a surge in youth migration, rise in income, and awareness of health and hygiene practices among the Bonda youth.Due to migration and the rise in income, a sizable number of Bonda youths in the age group of 17-35 years are increasingly preferring to consume foreign liquor rather than traditional alcohol.On the other hand, elderly people, women, and unemployed youth with low levels of education and below the poverty line (BPL) prefer different varieties of traditional alcohol.Among the Bonda, around half of the elderly women above 50 years old consume traditional alcohol once daily, and the remaining 50 per cent are occasional drinkers who do so during festivals, marriages or other celebrations in family and village.The elderly men above 50 years old in the Bonda community are habitual drinkers and consume alcohol at least twice a day.Some elderly Then the other God/Goddess are worshiped in the courtyard.Finally, the invisible spirits and unsatisfied souls are worshiped at the village square.In all these events alcohol is offered at the time of worship.However, Mahuli (Mahua liquor) is given utmost priority at the at the time of worship, followed by Pendom, Landa, Chini and Gud Mad, etc.But Salap has a unique demand due to its special taste, which is limited in supply 2 Marriage, Birth ceremony, Death ceremony, Puberty, In case of sociocultural events or ceremonies/ ritual practices like marriage, birth, death, puberty, etc., Mahuli is highly demanded by the people and considered as the most prestigious drink in these ceremonies.However, in case of unavailability of Mahuli, people go for alternative drinks like Pendom/Landa, etc people in the community are hazardous drinkers who stay intoxicated throughout the day.Similarly, unemployed youths and school dropout children also take traditional alcohol due to their keen interest in drinking and cultural as well as ancestral practices.Due to a lack of purchasing power, they cannot afford foreign liquor like others and manage with traditional alcohol.During the field visit, it was clearly observed that the initial drinkers liked Salap, Handia, and other such beverages with less intoxication, while the regular drinkers were attracted to Mahuli and similar other beverages with a concentration of relatively high intoxication (Table 4).At a time, a person usually drinks at least one glass of traditional alcohol, which is around 750 ml. which has the same volume as a beer bottle.Different types of alcohol command different prices.The alcohol made out of fruits is charged at Rs.50/-for a glass (750 ml), and the Mahuli, Chauli, Chini mad, Guda mad, etc., are charged at Rs.30/-for a glass.However, the alcohols like Pandom, Landa, Pana, etc. are charged at Rs.10/-for a glass.However, the alcohols like Salap, Tadi, Khajuri, etc., are measured differently by using a container made out of gourd and charged from Rs. 10/-to Rs. 50/-based on the size of the container.

Health consequences of traditional alcohol of Bonda
The alcohol content of the traditional alcohols prepared by Bonda ranges from 12.8 per cent to 29.2 per cent.In the past, rice beer (Handia) was widely demanded by a large number of tribal communities.However, at present, Mahua liquor (Mahuli) is the most demanded alcohol by the Bonda, which has 22 per cent alcoholic content.A large number of Bonda (mostly men) remain intoxicated with mahua liquor throughout the day.Mahua liquor is prepared through fermentation and distillation by adding harmful substances like spirit, ethanol, and urea (nitrogen fertilizer).As a result, numerous personal health issues, like tuberculosis, liver cirrhosis, jaundice, ataxia, etc. occur among consumers and often result in early death.Additionally, the unhygienic fermentation and alcohol production processes cause a number of health hazards to habitual consumers, which not only increase the amount of health expenditure but also result in the incidence of poverty, marginalisation, deprivation, etc (Table 5).

Discussion
Bonda is a separate tribal community that originated from the Gadaba tribe [15] and was named as per Bondi Mahadei' , the queen of the king "Jagadek" of Bastar, Chhattisgarh, India [16].The name Bonda (also alternatively known as Bondo, Bondas, Bonda Paraja, and Bhonda) signifies 'naked people' having the characteristics of being the most rude, wild, aggressive, savage, and cruel among all PVTGs of Odisha and exclusively residing in the Malkangiri district of Odisha [17].The Bonda as a tribal community has its own unique social, political, cultural, and economic way of lives.Traditional alcohol plays an important role in their sociocultural life.
Traditional alcohol has been used by the tribes since ancient times [24].Production of traditional alcohol in the home-based industry by using different ingredients like fruits, cereals, grains, flowers, vegetables, nuts, honey, sugar, jaggery, etc. has been practiced by the tribals of most parts of the world since ages [25][26][27][28].On the Asia continent, the indigenous/traditional alcohols are broadly classified as wine, beer, brandy, whisky, etc. which are based on the use of raw materials, processing steps, and fermentation and distillation processes of alcohol [24].The tribes of the African continent also produce different types of alcohol by using different ingredients, which are broadly classified under five categories, i.e., fermented honey water; fermented fruits and sap/juices; fermented sap from various species of palm and bamboo; drinks made from milk, and beers [24,29].Similar to other tribal communities, the traditional alcohol of the Bonda is classified into six major categories based on the major ingredients added to it.The different categories of traditional alcohols of the Bonda are; (1) alcohol prepared from fruits/vegetables; (2) alcohol directly collected from trees; (3) alcohol prepared from fermented food/cereals; (4) alcohol prepared from flowers; (5) alcohol prepared from berries/seeds/nuts; and (6) alcohol prepared from ingredients like sugar/jaggery, etc.
The alcohol produced by different tribal communities follows different methods of production, i.e., fermentation, distillation, post-distillation processing, etc. [30][31][32].However, the method of alcohol production by Bonda is broadly classified into three categories namely; (1) alcohol directly collected from trees; (2) alcohol produced through fermentation; and (3) alcohol produced through fermentation and distillation.Generally, Bonda don't do any further processing after fermentation and distillation of alcohol, which is practiced by some tribes of the South-Asia continent.Although fermentation of alcohol is an age-old practice in the majority of ST communities, including Bonda, due to a lack of knowledge and practice, they could not do any further processing or value-addition.
Traditional alcohol has a strong socio-cultural relevance among tribal communities and is used as a major beverage in festivals, and socio-cultural ceremonies/ rituals [3,[25][26][27][28]33].Despite consumption of alcohol in a greater volume, the Bonda use alcohol in different worships and ceremonials to satisfy God/Goddess, souls of forefathers, unsatisfied souls, etc. [34].Additionally, alcohol is also offered to fellow villagers, relatives, and friends for drinking, which is also prevalent among other tribal communities [9][10][11].
Production and sale of traditional alcohol helps to enhance the tribal economy and livelihood of a number of households living within the community [5].Alcohol is a widely demanded beverage among the Bonda community.Regardless of gender and economic condition, all age groups except small children drink alcohol among the Bonda.A sizable number of the Bonda people were found to be hazardous drinkers of traditional alcohol and they remain under its influence throughout the day.Like other tribal communities, the Bonda also consider traditional alcohol as a basic diet and nutrition.The alcohols like Handia, Landa, Chuda Mad, etc., are considered as the major sources of nutrition and wellness along with high sensory value [35].They believe that drinking of alcohols like Handia, Landa, Chuda Mad, etc., helps to solve digestion and other stomach related issues, and keep a person healthy and relaxed.Taking into account the higher demand for alcohol throughout the year, some households from the community have been engaged in the production and sale of traditional alcohol as their livelihood.The alcohol producers believe that, an increase in the intensity of intoxication in alcohol increases the volume of sale, and hence, income.In order to increase the volume of sale of traditional alcohol the producers add different harmful ingredients, like urea, which was not practiced earlier.
The traditional method of alcohol production by different tribes, including Bonda, raises a number of serious concerns related to clean production, hygiene, and sanitation maintained at the time of production [24].Additionally, the adulteration of alcohol for commercial use and profit motive escalates serious personal health hazards (tuberculosis, liver cirrhosis, jaundice, anxiety, ataxia, etc.) [36], social health concerns (crime, theft, domestic violence, tension, etc.) [37], morbidity among the drinkers [38].The modernization, assimilation and acculturation have largely impacted the socio-cultural life of all tribal communities, and the Bonda tribes are not an exception.As a result, the use of traditional alcohol during worship and offering alcohol to the God/Goddess, soul of forefather/unsatisfied soul is slowly vanishing from the society.
In current times, the Bonda have started drinking various types of alcohol (both traditional and foreign), often with a greater intensity, which is resulting in enormous personal health issues and social disorders.The rapid change in the income, occupation and livelihood has become a major cause of shift in alcohol preferences from low-cost traditional alcohol to high-cost foreign liquor.As a result, along with the rise in the income, the expenditure is increasing at a higher rate than that of income that results indebtedness and backwardness.Further, continuous drinking of alcohol and remaining intoxicated throughout the day results in different types of violence within the house and outside.As a result, both personal harm and damage of community property happens frequently causing numerous losses.Continuous intoxication causes loss of work and income resulting poverty and accelerates the rate of theft, rubbery, smuggling, etc. in the society.Furthermore, the health issues, domestic violence, and social evils germinated by hazardous alcohol consumption disrupts the individual, family and society of the Bonda.As a result, the peace, harmony, social order, etc., are no more prevalent as the magnitude of violence and unsocial activities have gone up with the influence of alcohol.

Conclusion
Bonda is one of the 13 PVTGs of Odisha that exclusively resides in the interior parts of the Khairaput, Korkunda, and Malkangiri blocks of the Malkangiri district of Odisha.The Bonda population was 12,231, with 5669 males and 6562 females.Among the Bonda, traditional alcohol has a strong dietary, nutritional, social, economic, and cultural relevance.By using three different methods of alcohol production, the Bonda has been producing over 23 different types of traditional alcohol, which can be classified into six different categories.With the effects of modernization, assimilation, and acculturation, the rich culture and one of the finest arts of production of traditional alcohol of the Bonda are under the threat of dying out.Similarly, the use of alcohol in different festivals and rituals are also slowly vanishing.Furthermore, the traditional alcohol produced by the Bonda are found to be adulterated to a great extent with the commercial motive, which causes a number of health hazards among the it's consumers.The dietary requirement of alcohol and the belief that alcohol is a major source of nutrition, along with sensory value is slowly replaced by the alternative beverages.Most importantly, the steep rise in the demand for foreign liquor especially among the youth is damaging the social system of the Bonda by causing domestic violence, social disorder, crime, theft, etc., which is a matter of greater concern.Along with the documentation of production, consumption and use of traditional alcohol, this paper also tried to project the future trend of use of traditional alcohol as a beverage and negative consequences of drinking foreign liquor by the Bonda.

Suggestion
Based on the findings of the study the paper recommends a set of suggestion to re-establish the traditional alcohol as a clean, hygienic, healthy and nutritious beverage.A proper standardization and robust commercial plan are essential for production and marketing of traditional alcohol.Traditional alcohol can be sold in the market with proper quality checking, labelling and branding.During production, cleanness and hygiene should be given utmost priority and the alcohol must be free from adulteration.Before bottling of the alcohol proper quality check should be made.Adequate training and capacity building of the producer with the help of government skill development centres can support alcohol producer of Bonda community.Additionally, promotion of the traditional alcohol using media can attract the youth and upper-middle class people for its consumption.

Fig. 2
Fig.2Broad classification of alcohol based on source of major ingredients.Based on the addition of the major ingredients, the traditional alcoholic beverages of Bonda tribe is broadly classified under six categories.The major ingredients of alcohol are fruit/vegetables, tree sap/juice, fermented food/cereals, flower, seed/nuts/berries and sugar/jiggery.Source Data compiled by the authors based on field study and observation

Picture 5 and 6 :
Fig.5Step-by-step production of 'Salap' (Saga palm juice).Picture 1: Saga palm tree with new off-shoot, which they call it as "Salap Ker".This 'Ker' is cut by the 'Jigidia' (the person who cut Ker and does the job of giving down Salap from the tree).Picture 2: After cutting off the 'Ker' the appearance of the tree looks as presented in the photo.It is tied with Siali rope to make it well warm massage by putting pressure with legs.Picture 3: After giving a proper massage, the Ker is hanged with a big clay pot or steel pot known as 'Salap Odu' where the saga juice is collected for serving the people to drink.Picture 4: The Jigidia is giving down Salap with the help of rope which hangs down from tree top to ground to take 'Tuma' (by which the saga juice will come down to the people to drink).Picture 5 and 6: The Jigidia climbs the tree to bring down the saga juice to give the people for drink.Pictures 7 and 8: This picture depicts the drinking of Salap with the help of 'Dumni' (a drinking pipe-like object made of gourd) after collected from the tree

Fig. 7
Fig. 7 Specific Steps and Processes Followed to Produce Traditional Alcohol.Broadly the production of traditional alcoholic beverages of Bonda are classified under three categories i.e., sap collection from tree, fermentation of food-fruit-cereal-vegetable-nuts, etc. and alcohol production through distillation.While the first photo shows the distillation of alcohol, second shows sap collection from Fishtail palm tree and the third one shows fermentation of mahua flower

Fig. 8 2 1 .
Fig. 8 Drinking of different Alcohol.Consumption of alcohol by Bonda are either done alone or in group.However, consumption of alcohol in group is a common practice, which is basically performed in socio-cultural celebration both for merrymaking and symbolic culture

Table 1
Types, ingredients and production season of different Alcohol Broad classification of Traditional Alcoholic Beverage production process.The methods of production of traditional alcoholic beverages of Bonda tribe is broadly classified under three categories namely; fresh sap/juice collected from tree, alcohol prepared from fermented food/ cereals and alcohol produced through distillation process.Bonda used to follow all three processes of alcohol production to meet the differential and diversified needs of alcohol.Source Data compiled by the author based on field study and observation Fig.3

Table 3
Alcohol as a source of Economy and LivelihoodSource Data compiled by the author based on field study and observation

Table 4
Consumption pattern of alcohol by Bonda

Table 5
Content of alcohol in traditional beverages: scientific analysisSource Scientific data from laboratory analysis made by Dr. Sagar Kumar Mishra, Pharmacy Department, Utkal University, Odisha