Table 1 Characteristics of local Indonesian beverages and their components

Tuo Mbanua

Sweet, whitish

Arenga pinnata, Cocos nucifera

Flower sap

Natural starter from air and plant part

None

4–5%

Nias Island

1 day

Home production

[52]

Tuo Nifaro

Clear colorless

Arenga pinnata, Cocos nucifera

Flower sap

Natural starter from air and plant part

1x

 > 10%

Nias Island

1 day

Home production

Diabetes, stroke

[53, 54]

tuak Batak

Sweet, bitter

Borassus flabellifer, Arenga pinnata, Cocos nucifera

Flower sap

Raru (Cotylelobium sp.), coconut husk

None

5–10%

Sumatra

1–1.5 day

Home production

[20]

tuak Bali

Sweet, bitter whitish

Borassus flabellifer, Arenga pinnata, Cocos nucifera

Flower sap

Powdered wood of Ganophyllum falcatum, bark of Piper retrofractum

None

5–10%

Bali

1–3 days

Home production, industry

[28]

Moke Mi

Sweet, white color and cloudy

Borassus flabellifer, Arenga pinnata, Cocos nucifera

Flower sap

Leaf of Arenga pinnata

None

 < 10%

Flores

6 h

Home production

[55, 56]

Moke Ba'i

Bitter, colorless

Borassus flabellifer, Arenga pinnata, Cocos nucifera

Flower sap

Leaf of Arenga pinnata

1–5x

 > 30%

Flores

7 days

Home production

[55, 56]

Baram

Sweet, bitter, hard

Oryza sativa, oryza sativa var. glutinosa

seeds

Store bought starter, fresh dry spices (Alpinia galanga, Cinnamomum verum, Cinnamomum sp. leaf, Cloves, Capsicum, Nicotiana tabacum), and white sugar, fresh clean water

None

1–80%

Katingan, Central Borneo

10–15 days to months

Home production

[57, 58]

Legen

Sweet

Borassus flabellifer

Flower sap

Natural starter from air and plant part

None

 < 1%

Tuban, East Java

none

Home production

Pasteurization

Gastritic

[59, 60]

Tuwak

Bitter, sour

Borassus flabellifer

Flower sap

Anacardium occidentale bark, coconut husk, Syzygium cumini fruit skin

None

 > 10%

Tuban, East Java

 > 10 days

Home production

Low blood pressure, kidney stone, kidney problem

[60, 61]

Ara'

Clear, bitter

Arenga pinnata

Flower sap

Natural starter from air and plant part

1x

 > 20%

Buton

3 days

Home production

Increase stamina, diabetes

[62]

Saguer

Sweet, sour, tasty

Arenga pinnata

Flower sap

Natural starter from air and plant part

None

5–10%

Minahasa

6–12 h

Home production

Filtering by arenga leaf fiber

[63]

Sopi/Cap Tikus

Sweet, soft, fresh

Arenga pinnata

Flower sap

Natural starter from air and plant part

Once

40–80%

Minahasa

3–4 days

Home production, industry

Stamina, increase blood, virus disinfectant

[64, 65]

Khewphu

Whitish, sweet

Cocos nucifera

Flower sap

Lansium domesticum roots

None

3–5%

Jayapura, Papua

1–2 days

Home production

Mantra

[66]

Ciu Bekonang

Colorless, bitter, throat burn

Saccharum officinarum

Sugarcane juice, molasses

Previous fermented liquid, starter

1–3x

30–90%

Java

5–7 days

Home production

Filtering with rice sack

Stamina enhancer

[67]

Ciu Banyumas

Clear with a tint of yellow

Manihot esculenta

Starchy root tuber

Palm sugar, starter (Enterococcus, Brochothrix, Lactobacillus, Pediococcus, Leuconostoc, Listeria, Saccharococcus, Streptococcus, Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and water

1–3x

20–70%

Java

7 days

Home production

Stamina enhance

[68]

Arak Jowo

Clear, bitter

Saccharum officinarum, Oryza sativa var. glutinosa

molasses, seeds

Palm sugar

1x

15–30%

Ngawi, Java

5–7 days

Home production

Distillation by burning using Switenia mahagoni wood

[69, 70]

Ballo (nipa, inru, ase, tala)

Sweet, soft

Nypa fruticans, Arenga pinnata, Oryza sativa, Oryza sativa var. glutinosa, Borassus flabellifer

Flower sap, rice seeds

Natural starter from air and plant part

None

5–30%

South Sulawesi

Days—months

Home production

Stamina enhancer

[71, 72]